Resources & Appendices

• Resources
  • Periodic Table
  • Acid-Base Table
  • Bond Energies
  • Elements
  • Fundamental Constants
  • Selected Standard Reduction Potentials at 298 K
  • Thermodynamic Properties
  • Selected Solubility Product Constants
  • Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
  • Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation Data for Some Solvents
• Appendices
  • Appendix A – Reporting Quantitative Measurements and Results
  • Appendix B – The Factor Label Method
• End of Chapter Exercises
  • Chapter 1
  • Chapter 2
  • Chapter 3
  • Chapter 4
  • Chapter 5
  • Chapter 6
  • Chapter 7
  • Chapter 8
  • Chapter 9
  • Chapter 10
  • Chapter 11
• Solutions to Odd Exercises
  • Chapter 1
  • Chapter 2
  • Chapter 3
  • Chapter 4
  • Chapter 5
  • Chapter 6
  • Chapter 7
  • Chapter 8
  • Chapter 9
  • Chapter 10
  • Chapter 11

• Glossary
• Full Print Version

Chapters

• Chapter 1 – Stoichiometry
  • Introduction
    
    Chemistry – A Molecular Science (CAMS), the first half of this two-course sequence, stressed bonding, structure, and reactivity...
  • 1.1 Mass and Moles
    
    Chemists use chemical equations to design possible routes to desired molecules and to discuss chemical processes...
  • 1.2 Determining Chemical Formulas
    
    The composition of a compound is given in terms of the mass percents of its component elements...
  • 1.3 Substance or Composition Stoichiometry
    
    In a composition stoichiometry problem, the amount of one substance that is combined with another is determined with the use of the ratios of the subscripts in the chemical formula...
  • 1.4 Balancing Chemical Equations
    
    Neither the identity nor the number of atoms is changed in a chemical reaction, so chemical equations are balanced to assure that the number of each type of atom is the same on both sides...
  • 1.5 Reaction Stoichiometry
    
    The ratios of the coefficients of a balanced equation are conversion factors that allow us to calculate the amount of one substance that is produced by or reacts with a given amount of another substance...
  • 1.6 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 2 – Solutions
  • Introduction
    
    Solutions are all around us. Our atmosphere is a solution of gases in gases, carbonated beverages are solutions of gases in liquids, sweetened drinks are solutions of solids in liquids, and solder is a solution of solids in solids...
  • 2.1 Concentration Units
    
    The properties of a solution depend upon the relative amounts of solvent and solute(s), which is given by the solute concentration in the solution...
  • 2.2 Changing Concentrations Units
    
    It is sometimes necessary to change the units of concentration...
  • 2.3 Dilutions
    
    Stock solutions are often fairly concentrated and must be diluted before they are used...
  • 2.4 Determining Concentrations
    
    Analyzing solutions to determine their concentration is an important part of analytical chemistry...
  • 2.5 Colligative Properties
    
    The properties of a solution depend upon the concentrations of the solutes...
  • 2.6 Colloids
    
    Sometimes, rather than dissolving, one material will be suspended as small aggregates in another...
  • 2.7 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 3 – The First Law of Thermodynamics
  • Introduction
    
    In this chapter, we discuss the First Law of Thermodynamics (energy cannot be created or destroyed)...
  • 3.1 Some Definitions and Conventions
    
    Determining the magnitude and direction of the energy flow is a common goal of thermodynamics...
  • 3.2 Work, Heat, and Energy
    
    Heat and work are forms of energy transfer, and they represent the most common way for systems to exchange energy with their surroundings...
  • 3.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
    
    "Energy cannot be created or destroyed" is one of many statements of the First Law of Thermodynamics...
  • 3.4 Enthalpy
    
    In the last section, we saw that some of the energy change (Δn_gRT) of a reaction carried out at constant pressure is in the form of work as escaping gases push back the atmosphere...
  • 3.5 Standard States and Properties of Enthalpy Changes
    
    The enthalpy of a reaction depends upon the states of the reactants (solid, liquid, gas, or solution) and upon the amounts of each of the substances...
  • 3.6 Hess's Law of Heat Summation
    
    Enthalpy is a state function, so the enthalpy change of a process is independent of the path used to convert the initial state into the final state...
  • 3.7 Enthalpies (or Heats) of Formation
    
    In the previous section, we saw that the enthalpy of a reaction can be determined from the heats of combustion of the reactants and products...
  • 3.8 Bond Dissociation Energies
    
    Although tables of heats of formation are extensive, there are still many compounds whose heats of formation are unknown...
  • 3.9 Calorimetry
    
    Heats of formation, heats of combustion, and bond energies are all available in tables and can be used to determine or approximate the enthalpy change of other reactions...
  • 3.10 Combustion: Food as Fuel
    
    The energy that is derived from the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats is essentially the same as is produced by their combustion in a calorimeter...
  • 3.11 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 4 – Thermodynamics and Equilibrium
  • Introduction
    
    Thus far, we have assumed that the limiting reactant is always consumed completely in a reaction, but this is not always the case because many reactions reach equilibrium with substantial amounts of reactant still present...
  • 4.1 Entropy
    
    In CAMS Section 9.6, we described entropy as a measure of the number of ways over which the energy of a system could be dispersed...
  • 4.2 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
    
    Our discussions of entropy have been restricted to changes in the system, but processes impact the entropy of both the system and its surroundings...
  • 4.3 Determining Entropy Changes
    
    As with enthalpies, tabulated values of entropy are normally the standard state values and represented as S°...
  • 4.4 Free Energy
    
    Like enthalpy but unlike entropy, free energy is not absolute, so tables of G° do not exist...
  • 4.5 Determining Free Energy Changes
    
    Determine standard state free energy changes for a reaction from either standard free energies of formation or standard enthalpies of formation and standard entropies...
  • 4.6 Standard Free Energy and Equilibrium
    
    At a given temperature, ΔG° is a constant for a reaction, but ΔG varies with the concentrations of the reactants and products...
  • 4.7 Temperature Dependence of ΔG, ΔG°, and K
    
    Although the absolute entropy of a substance is temperature dependent, ΔS° often varies only slightly with temperature because the entropies of the reactants and products vary in the same direction...
  • 4.8 Coupled Reactions
    
    A thermodynamically unfavorable reaction can be driven by a thermodynamically favorable one that is coupled to it...
  • 4.9 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 5 – Chemical Equilibrium
  • Introduction
    
    The equilibrium constant was defined in Chapter 4, and calculations were done to establish the relationship between it and the standard free energy change of the reaction...
  • 5.1 The Equilibrium Constant
    
    The thermodynamic equilibrium constant discussed in Chapter 4 is unitless because it is defined in terms of unitless activities...
  • 5.2 Le Châtelier's Principle
    
    In Chapter 4, the spontaneous direction of a reaction was predicted from known concentrations by using the fact that a reaction proceeds from left to right when Q < K and from right to left when Q > K...
  • 5.3 Using the Equilibrium Constant
    
    The stoichiometry problems of Chapter 1 all assumed that the limiting reactant disappeared completely during reaction...
  • 5.4 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 6 – Acids and Bases
  • Introduction
    
    Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions. Acids donate protons to bases...
  • 6.1 Autoionization of Water
    
    All of the acid-base reactions we will discuss occur in water, so it is important to understand the acid-base properties of water...
  • 6.2 The p-Scale
    
    Many of the numbers used in this chapter are very small, so they are often expressed on the p-scale to avoid the use of negative exponents or preceding zeroes...
  • 6.3 Strong Acids
    
    The common strong acids are HClO₄, HCl, HBr, HI, HNO₃, and H₂SO₄...
  • 6.4 Weak Acids
    
    Weak acids react only slightly with water, so the hydronium ion concentration in a solution of a weak acid does not equal the makeup concentration...
  • 6.5 Polyprotic Acids
    
    Polyprotic acids contain two or more protons. For example, H₂S is diprotic and H₃PO₄ is triprotic...
  • 6.6 Strong Bases
    
    The solutions of strong bases are usually made by dissolving metal hydroxides in water...
  • 6.7 Weak Bases
    
    Weak bases are treated in a manner identical to that used for weak acids...
  • 6.8 Salts of Weak Acids and Bases
    
    Salts are ionic compounds that are produced in acid-base reactions...
  • 6.9 Amphiprotic Salts
    
    Amphiprotic salts are both acids and bases, so their aqueous equilibria are slightly more complicated than those of weak acids or bases...
  • 6.10 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 7 – Mixtures of Acids and Bases
  • Introduction
    
    In Chapter 6, we examined the equilibrium concentrations in solutions of acids and solutions of bases...
  • 7.1 The Common-Ion Effect
    
    Predicting the effect on an equilibrium mixture caused by the presence of an ion that appears in the equilibrium but is introduced from a separate source is something we will need to do frequently...
  • 7.2 Buffers
    
    In Chapter 6, we discussed four types of acid-base solutions in some detail: strong acid, strong base, weak acid, and weak base...
  • 7.3 Acid-Base Composition from Reactant Amounts
    
    We have now treated five different types of acid-base solutions and shown how to determine [H₃O¹⁺], [OH^1–], and pH of each...
  • 7.4 Acid-Base Composition from Equilibrium pH
    
    Solutions are frequently prepared by adjusting the solution pH to a desired level rather than adding a known volume of acid or base...
  • 7.5 Acid-Base Indicators
    
    Acid-base indicators change color in small ranges of pH change and indicate the endpoint of an acid-base titration, but they too are weak acids and bases...
  • 7.6 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 8 – Equilibria Containing Metal Ions
  • Introduction
    
    Several different equilibria must be considered when dealing with aqueous metal ions...
  • 8.1 Acid-Base Equilibria
    
    While metal ions rarely have protons to donate as required by the Brønsted acid definition, they can accept electron pairs to form covalent bonds, which makes them acidic by the Lewis definition...
  • 8.2 Dissolution and the Solubility Product Constant
    
    Calcium carbonate (also known as limestone) is a slightly soluble salt that is responsible for scale in containers of hard water...
  • 8.3 Precipitation and Separation of Ions
    
    Our discussions thus far have focused on the amount of a slightly soluble salt that dissolves, but now we consider the reverse process; i.e., does a precipitate form under...
  • 8.4 Complex Ions
    
    Complex ions are ions in which a central metal ion is surrounded by molecular or anionic ligands...
  • 8.5 Competing or Simultaneous Equilibria
    
    As we have seen, metal ions can be involved in acid-base, solubility, and complex ion equilibria...
  • 8.6 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 9 – Electrochemistry
  • Introduction
    
    Electron transfer, or redox, reactions form one of the broadest and most important classes of reactions in chemistry...
  • 9.1 Redox Review
    
    Electrochemistry was introduced in detail in CAMS Chapter 11, and a knowledge of that material is essential to the understanding of this chapter...
  • 9.2 Balancing Redox Reactions
    
    Redox reactions can be difficult to balance because the loss and gain of redox electrons must also be balanced, but there are two methods that simplify the task...
  • 9.3 Free Energy and Electrochemical Cells
    
    We now continue our treatment of galvanic cells and begin our discussion of their thermodynamics...
  • 9.4 The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential
    
    The cell potential is a measure of chemical free energy of a redox reaction, and we now apply the relationships between the reaction quotient, the equilibrium constant, and the free energy of reaction presented in Chapter 4 to electrochemical processes...
  • 9.5 The Electrolytic Cell
    
    A second technological side of electrochemistry is based on the use of external electrical circuits to control the redox chemistry itself, including the ability to force electrons uphill in energy...
  • 9.6 Predicting the Products of Electrolysis
    
    The electrolysis of a mixture of several components usually produces only one product at each electrode...
  • 9.7 Stoichiometry of Electrochemistry
    
    By the 1830s, Michael Faraday had discovered that, when a chemical reaction was harnessed to an electrical current using an electrochemical cell, the amount of electricity produced or consumed corresponded directly to the amount of chemical reactant involved...
  • 9.8 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 10 – Chemical Kinetics
  • Introduction
    
    To this point in our study of chemistry, we have been concerned only with the composition of the equilibrium mixture, not the length of time required to obtain it...
  • 10.1 Reaction Rates
    
    Rates are changes in one quantity with respect to another, and reaction rates are measured as changes in concentration with respect to time...
  • 10.2 Rate Laws
    
    Rates are used to determine the rate law of a reaction, which shows how the rate varies with the concentrations of reactants...
  • 10.3 Determining Rate Laws
    
    The exponents of each of the concentrations in a rate law must be determined experimentally...
  • 10.4 Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Laws
    
    The rate law of a reaction gives us some clues about the steps involved in the reaction...
  • 10.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates
    
    The rate of reaction depends upon both the reactant concentrations and the temperature...
  • 10.6 Catalysis
    
    Catalysts increase the rate of reaction but are unchanged by it...
  • 10.7 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 11 – Nuclear Chemistry
  • Introduction
    
    Most of chemistry focuses on the changes in the electronic structure of the atoms and molecules because it is those changes that result in bond breaking and bond formation (i.e., in chemical reactivity)...
  • 11.1 The Nucleus
    
    All of the positive charge (protons) of an atom is concentrated in a very small volume called the nucleus...
  • 11.2 Nuclear Reactions and Radioactivity
    
    Most nuclei found in nature are stable, and those that are not are said to be radioactive...
  • 11.3 Kinetics of Radioactivity
    
    Radioactive decay is an elementary process involving only one particle, so it follows first order kinetics...
  • 11.4 Nuclear Radiation and Living Tissue
    
    When visible light is absorbed by a molecule, the electrons can be excited into excited states, but they soon find their way back to the ground state...
  • 11.5 Nuclear Fission
    
    Fission reactions are extremely exothermic and are the basis for nuclear power plants (controlled fission) and weaponry (uncontrolled fission)...
  • 11.6 Nuclear Fusion
    
    In nuclear fusion, two lighter atoms combine, or fuse, to form a heavier atom...
  • 11.7 Origin of the Heavy Elements
    
    Nature has mastered fusion in nuclear reactors called stars, and the by-products of these thermonuclear reactions are the elements that populate the periodic table...
  • 11.8 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...

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